Thinking about Thinking...

THINKING ERRORS 19

15 Common Cognitive Distortions
By JOHN M. GROHOL, PSY.D.
July 2, 2009

What’s a cognitive distortion and why do so many people have them? Cognitive distortions are simply ways that our mind convinces us of something that isn’t really true. These inaccurate thoughts are usually used to reinforce negative thinking or emotions — telling ourselves things that sound rational and accurate, but really only serve to keep us feeling bad about ourselves.

For instance, a person might tell themselves, “I always fail when I try to do something new; I therefore fail at everything I try.” This is an example of “black or white” (or polarized) thinking. The person is only seeing things in absolutes — that if they fail at one thing, they must fail at all things. If they added, “I must be a complete loser and failure” to their thinking, that would also be an example of overgeneralization — taking a failure at one specific task and generalizing it their very self and identity.

Cognitive distortions are at the core of what many cognitive-behavioral and other kinds of therapists try and help a person learn to change in psychotherapy. By learning to correctly identify this kind of “stinkin’ thinkin’,” a person can then answer the negative thinking back, and refute it. By refuting the negative thinking over and over again, it will slowly diminish overtime and be automatically replaced by more rational, balanced thinking.

Cognitive Distortions
Aaron Beck first proposed the theory behind cognitive distortions and David Burns was responsible for popularizing it with common names and examples for the distortions.

1. Filtering.

We take the negative details and magnify them while filtering out all positive aspects of a situation. For instance, a person may pick out a single, unpleasant detail and dwell on it exclusively so that their vision of reality becomes darkened or distorted.

2. Polarized Thinking.

Things are either “black-or-white.” We have to be perfect or we’re a failure–there is no middle ground. You place people or situations in “either/or” categories, with no shades of gray or allowing for the complexity of most people and situations. If your performance falls short of perfect, you see yourself as a total failure.

3. Overgeneralization.

We come to a general conclusion based on a single incident or piece of evidence. If something bad happens once, we expect it to happen over and over again. A person may see a single, unpleasant event as a never-ending pattern of defeat.

4. Jumping to Conclusions.

Without individuals saying so, we know what they are feeling and why they act the way they do. In particular, we are able to determine how people are feeling toward us. For example, a person may conclude that someone is reacting negatively toward them and don’t actually bother to find out if they are correct. Another example is a person may anticipate that things will turn out badly, and will feel convinced that their prediction is already an established fact.

5. Catastrophizing.

We expect disaster to strike, no matter what. This is also referred to as “magnifying or minimizing.” We hear about a problem and use what if questions (e.g., “What if tragedy strikes?” “What if it happens to me?”).

For example, a person might exaggerate the importance of insignificant events (such as their mistake, or someone else’s achievement). Or they may inappropriately shrink the magnitude of significant events until they appear tiny (for example, a person’s own desirable qualities or someone else’s imperfections).

6. Personalization.

Thinking that everything people do or say is some kind of reaction to us. We also compare ourselves to others trying to determine who is smarter, better looking, etc. A person sees themselves as the cause of some unhealthy external event that the were not responsible for. For example, “We were late to the dinner party and caused the hostess to overcook the meal. If I had only pushed my husband to leave on time, this wouldn’t have happened.”

7. Control Fallacies.

If we feel externally controlled, we see ourselves as helpless a victim of fate. For example, “I can’t help it if the quality of the work is poor, my boss demanded I work overtime on it.” The fallacy of internal control has us assuming responsibility for the pain and happiness of everyone around us. For example, “Why aren’t you happy? Is it because of something I did?”

8. Fallacy of Fairness.

We feel resentful because we think we know what is fair, but other people won’t agree with us. As our parents tell us, “Life is always fair,” and people who go through life applying a measuring ruler against every situation judging its “fairness” will often feel badly and negative because of it.

9. Blaming.

We hold other people responsible for our pain, or take the other track and blame ourselves for every problem. For example, “Stop making me feel bad about myself!” Nobody can “make” us feel any particular way — only we have control over our own emotions and emotional reactions.

10. Shoulds.

We have a list of ironclad rules about how others and we should behave. People who break the rules make us angry, and we feel guilty when we violate these rules. A person may often believe they are trying to motivate themselves with shoulds and shouldn’ts, as if they have to be punished before they can do anything.

For example, “I really should exercise. I shouldn’t be so lazy.” Musts and oughts are also offenders. The emotional consequence is guilt. When a person directs should statements toward others, they often feel anger, frustration and resentment.

11. Emotional Reasoning.

We believe that what we feel must be true automatically. If we feel stupid and boring, then we must be stupid and boring. You assume that your unhealthy emotions reflect he way things really are — “I feel it, therefore it must be true.”

12. Fallacy of Change.

We expect that other people will change to suit us if we just pressure or cajole them enough. We need to change people because our hopes for happiness seem to depend entirely on them.

13. Global Labeling.

We generalize one or two qualities into a negative global judgment. These are extreme forms of generalizing, and are also referred to as “labeling” and “mislabeling.” Instead of describing an error in context of a specific situation, a person will attach an unhealthy label to themselves.

For example, they may say, “I’m a loser” in a situation where they failed at a specific task. When someone else’s behavior rubs a person the wrong way, they may attach an unhealthy label to him, such as “He’s a real jerk.” Mislabeling involves describing an event with language that is highly colored and emotionally loaded. For example, instead of saying someone drops her children off at daycare every day, a person who is mislabeling might say that “she abandons her children to strangers.”

14. Always Being Right.

We are continually on trial to prove that our opinions and actions are correct. Being wrong is unthinkable and we will go to any length to demonstrate our rightness. For example, “I don’t care how badly arguing with me makes you feel, I’m going to win this argument no matter what because I’m right.” Being right often is more important than the feelings of others around a person who engages in this cognitive distortion, even loved ones.

15. Heaven’s Reward Fallacy.

We expect our sacrifice and self-denial to pay off, as if someone is keeping score. We feel bitter when the reward doesn’t come.

So now that you know what cognitive distortions are, how do you go about undoing them? Read how in Fixing Cognitive Distortions.

References:

Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapies and emotional disorders. New York: New American Library.

Burns, D. D. (1980). Feeling good: The new mood therapy. New York: New American Library.
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THINKING ERRORS 18

The question is, are there any signs that this group can see that fits? Or is this a bunch of hog-wash?

These thinking errors are in the Public Domain, free for everyone’s use. Their purpose, so prison personnel believe, are to educate inmates on the ways we believe, manipulating us into thinking that we have these thoughts. Perhaps inmates think differently, more creatively at times, but the interesting thing is, just about everyone has what the system calls “thinking errors”. So relax, enjoy the reading, and don’t take anything too seriously.



1. Energy – The criminal is extremely energetic. His or her high level of mental activity is directed to a flow of ideas as to what would make life more interesting and exciting.



2. Fear – Fears in the criminal are widespread, persistent, and intense; especially fears of being caught for something, fear of injury or death, and fear of a putdown.



3. Zero State – This is the periodic experience of oneself as being nothing, “a zero”; a feeling of absolute worthlessness, hopelessness, and futility.

4. Anger – Anger is a basic part of the criminal’s way of life. He or she responds angrily to anything interpreted as opposing what he or she wants. Anger is, for the criminal, a major way of controlling people and situations.


5. Pride – Criminal pride is an extreme high evaluation of oneself. It is the idea that one is better than others, even when this is clearly not the case. Criminal pride preserves his or her rigid self-image as a powerful, totally self-determining person.


6. The Power Thrust – Criminals need control and power over others. The greatest power excitement is doing the forbidden and getting away with it. The need for power, control, and dominance shows in all areas of their lives. The occasions when criminals appear to show an interest in a responsible activity are generally opportunities for criminals to exercise power and control.

7. Sentimentality – Criminals are often excessively sentimental about their mothers, old people,
invalids, animals, babies, their love attachments, and plans for the future

8. Religion – Criminals use religion to support their way of thinking and their criminality. Their religious ideas are usually very literal and concrete. Religion (like sentimentality) does not consistently deter criminal thinking or actions, but does support the criminal’s self-image as a good and decent person.


9. Concrete Thinking – Criminals tend to think in terms of particular objects and events, rather than general and abstract concepts.

10.. Fragmentation – This is a very basic feature of the criminal personality. It refers to radical fluctuations in the criminal’s mental state that occur within relatively short periods of time. There is a pattern of starting something, and then changing one’s mind. Criminals will make commitments with sincerity and great feeling, and then break these commitments within the hour. They may feel sentimental love for their children, and then take their money to buy drugs. Their personality is a collection of distinct, isolated, and contradictory fragments.


11. Uniqueness – Criminals emphasize their total difference from other people. They feel themselves to be special, “one of a kind.



12. Perfectionism – Criminal’s have extreme standards of perfection, although he or she applies theses standards sporadically and inconsistently.


13. Suggestibility – Criminals are (1) very suggestible with respect to any behavior that leads to what they want; (2) very resistant to suggestion toward responsible thinking and behavior.
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14. The Loner – Criminals lead a private, secretive life; one against the world (including fellow criminals). They feel themselves to be apart from others, even if outwardly they are active and gregarious.


15. Sexuality – Criminals have plenty of sexual experience, but little in the way of sensual gratification or competence in performance. Conquest is essential, and a partner is regarded as a possession.


16. Lying – Criminal’s lying is a way of life. Lying is incorporated into his or her basic make up and feeds other criminal patterns. More common than premeditated lying, is habitual lying, which becomes automatic. The criminal defines reality with his or her lies, and so maintains control.


17. The Closed Channel – In treatment, an open channel of communication requires disclosure, receptivity, and self-criticism. Instead, the unchanged criminal is secretive, has a closed mind, and is self-righteous. If therapy for the criminal is to be effective, an open channel between the criminal and his or her therapist must be established.


18. “I can’t” – Criminals say, “I can’t” to express a refusal to act responsibly. At the same time they believe that there is nothing they can’t do if he or she wants to. Criminal’s say, “I can’t” to escape accountability for what he or she does.


19. The Victim Stance – When criminals are held accountable for their irresponsible actions, they blame others and portray themselves as a victim. The world does not give them what they think is essential, so they view themselves as poorly treated and thus a victim.


20. Lack of Time Perspective – Even more than wanting what they want when they want it, criminals demand immediate possession and success. They must be the best, have the best, right now.


21. Failure to Put Oneself in Another’s Position – Criminals demand every consideration and every break for themselves, but rarely stop to think about what other people think, feel, and expect.



22. Failure to Consider Injury to Others – Criminals lives involve extensive injury to those around them. However, they do not view themselves as injuring others. When held accountable, they regard themselves as the injured party.



23. Failure to Assume Obligation – The concept of obligation is foreign to criminal thinking. Obligations interfere with what they want to do. Obligation is viewed as a position of weakness and vulnerability to other’s control. Obligations are irritating to the criminal, and if pressed, he or she will respond with resentment and anger.



24. Failure to Assume Responsible Initiatives – The criminal declines to take responsible initiatives because (1) responsible initiatives fail to provide the excitement and power thrust of forbidden activities, (2) they do not provide a guarantee of success and triumph, and (3) they are often afraid that accepting responsible tasks will expose their lack of knowledge and ineptness.





25. Ownership – When criminals want something that belongs to someone else, it is as good as theirs. “Belonging” is established in their minds, in the sense that they feel perfectly justified in getting their way.



Criminals consider themselves decent people with the right to do whatever suits their purpose. They view the world as their oyster and view people as pawns or checkers, waiting to be dealt with as they wish. This thinking is habitual and without malice.



26. Fear of Fear – Criminals are fearful of fear and contemptuous of fear. When they discern fear in others, they point it out scorn it, and exploit it. When fear occurs in them, it is a put-down, destroying their self-esteem. This applies also to the many states that denote degrees of fear- doubt, concern, apprehension, and anxiety. They deny these in themselves but when they occur in others, the criminal is ready to pounce.



27. Lack of Trust – Although criminals do not trust others, they demand that others trust them. There are times when their trust of others is sincere, but this is only one of the many fragments of their personalities. It does not last.



28. Refusal to Be Dependant – Like anyone else, criminals depend on other people for some things in life. However, they do not see themselves this way. They fail to believe that a degree of independence is a necessary part of existence. To themselves, dependence is a weakness; lt would render them vulnerable.



29. Lack of Interest in Responsible Performance – Criminals are not interested in responsible tasks that don’t offer immediate excitement. They find responsibility boring. When they do become interested in a responsible project their interest is short-lived, unless they feel the excitement of being a conspicuous success.



30. Pretentiousness – Criminals do little to achieve, but carry tremendously inflated ideas about their capacities. They are, or will be the best, never that they will do their best. They are right and others are wrong, “I usually get mad… if I hear somebody say anything wrong. I usually try to set them straight.” When confined they regard themselves as more knowledgeable than prison staff and seize every opportunity to teach others.



31. Failure to Make an Effort to Endure Adversity – “Effort” refers to doing things that are contrary to what one prefers to do. In this sense, criminals expend little effort, though they may expend tremendous energy doing what they want to do. They refuse to endure the adversity of responsible living. The main adversity to criminals is failure to be a big shot. Adversity is anything that is not going their way. Criminals escape from “adversity” into criminal thought action, which is exciting.



32. Poor Decision Making for Responsible Living – In important personal decisions there is no sound reasoning, fact-finding, consideration of costs, or options. Criminals are reluctant to ask a question about non-criminal activities, because they view it as a put–down to reveal their ignorance. If their pretensions and expectations are controverted by the facts, they do not want to hear them.



33. Corrosion and Cutoff - Criminals may be deterred from criminal activity by a sense of

conscience, a sincere wish to change and by sentimental, religious, or humanitarian feeling, as well as, by fear of getting caught. Criminals overcome these deterrents to their criminality by the processes of corrosion and cutoff.



Corrosion – A mental process in which deterrents are slowly eliminated until the desire to commit a criminal act outweighs the deterrent factors. This is criminal scheming. In this process a criminal’s sentiments, ideals and fears gradually give way to the desire for a criminal activity.



Cutoff – A mental process that eliminates deterrents from consideration completely and instantaneously. The gradual process of corrosion is completed by the final cutoff of fear and other deterrents to crime. Cutoff is a mental process that produces fragmentation (Number 10). Criminals radically move instantaneously from one mental state to another.



34. Building Up the Opinion of Oneself as a Good Person – Criminals believe that they are good and decent people. They reject the thought that oneself is a criminal. Performing sentimental acts towards others enhances the criminal’s view of oneself as good. The image of themselves as good people gives them, in turn, a license for more crime, and postpones the recurrence of the zero state.



35. Deferment – Criminals defer or “put things off” in three distinct areas. (1) They carry with them the idea of an ultimate crime, the “big score,” but defers enacting it. (2) They have the idea that one day they will quit crime, go straight and settle down, but that day is constantly deferred. (3) They have a habit of deferring the minor routine responsibilities of life – paying a bill, writing a letter, filing a tax return.



36. Super optimism – A criminal’s mind works in such a way that a possibility or an assumption is an accomplished fact--an idea is a reality. If someone tells the criminal “maybe” he regards it as a promise. Anything that he or she decides to do is as good as done. The criminal uses cutoff to eliminate fear and doubt. The result is that as he or she approaches a criminal activity; the state of absolute confidence is reached. Superoptimistic, there is not a doubt in his mind. Similarity, if he does decide to become a responsible person, he is Superoptimistic of his or her success. Once this decision is made, the criminal will believe that change has already accrued.

THINKING ERRORS 17

Stress Management for Health Course

Stress Self Test - Stress Resistant Thinking

Stress Self-Test © Professor Cary Cooper PhD

Circle the appropriate number to show how often you have been troubled by the following:

0 = Never/rarely; 1 = Occasionally; 2 = Frequently; 3 = Always/nearly always

1. Constantly getting annoyed with people.

0

1

2

3

2. Difficulty in making decisions.

0

1

2

3

3. Loss of sense of humour.

0

1

2

3

4. Suppressed anger.

0

1

2

3

5. Difficulty concentrating.

0

1

2

3

6. Inability to finish one task before

rushing into another.

0

1

2

3

7. Feeling you're the target of other people's

animosity.

0

1

2

3

8. Feeling unable to cope.

0

1

2

3

9. Wanting to cry at the smallest problem.

0

1

2

3

10. Not interested in doing things after coming home

from work.

0

1

2

3

11. Waking up and feeling tired after an early night.

0

1

2

3

12. Constant tiredness.

0

1

2

3

13. Lack of appetite.

0

1

2

3

14. Craving for food when under pressure.

0

1

2

3

15. Frequent indigestion or heartburn.

0

1

2

3

16. Constipation or diarrhoea.

0

1

2

3

17. Insomnia.

0

1

2

3

18. Tendency to sweat for no good reason.

0

1

2

3

19. Nervous twitches, nail biting, etc.

0

1

2

3

20. Headaches.

0

1

2

3

21. Cramps and muscle spasms.

0

1

2

3

22. Nausea.

0

1

2

3

23. Breathlessness without exertion.

0

1

2

3

24. Fainting spells.

0

1

2

3

25. Impotence or frigidity.

0

1

2

3

26. Eczema.

0

1

2

3

Remember this is only a rough guide.

Total score between 0-25 (Not many symptoms of Stress)

Total score between 26-52 (Moderate Stress)

Total score between 53-78 (Very High Stress)

THINKING ERRORS 16

Stress Management for Health Course

Rational Beliefs Inventory

Directions: For each of the following 20 statements select either 1 (most like me), 2 (somewhat like me), 0 (not sure), or 3 (not like me) to describe your feelings.

1. I need approval from family, friends, and acquaintances.

2. Things that happen to me in the past control who I am.

3. I must be good at everything I try.

4. I have little control over my emotions.

5. Other people and things tend to make me feel bad.

6. I deal with tough problems by avoiding them.

7. Things should really turn out better than they do.

8. My motto is, "Never volunteer."

9. I can't seem to get fearful things off my mind.

10.Unfair people are rotten and should be blamed for their misdeeds.

11.It is terrible when things dont go my way.

12.I really need love and approval from everyone.

13.Worrying about fearful things helps me cope with them.

14.Because the past strongly influences who we are, it determines our present emotions and behaviour.

15.It's really easier to avoid problems and responsibilities than to face them.

16.I am happiest when I don't commit myself to things.

17.There are some people who are just plain rotten and deserve all the misery they get.

18.People really should do their best at everything.

19.There really is a perfect solution to every problem thats why its so terrible when it isn't found.

20.It's horrible when things in my life are not the way I want them to be.

Scoring: Add all of the numbers you placed in the left-hand column.

The lower the score, the more stress inducing your thinking is.

0 - 20:

If you scored in this range, you tend to believe in many of the 10 illogical beliefs of Rational Emotive Therapy.

20 - 40:

You have a moderately illogical belief system.

40 - 60:

You tend to be logical and rational.

Remember this is an estimate of how your beliefs about life match up to the 10 illogical beliefs of Rational Emotive Therapy.

All of us share some of these beliefs at times.

(Blonna R. Coping with Stress in a Changing World)